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Beginning with Almoravid invasion, time of confusion sets in in Ghana empire while successor states compete for power. Period of critalisation of many maturing Iron Age polities, including origins of Wolof states in Senegal, Yoruba states in western Nigeria, earliest kingship in Benin under semi-legendary Ogiso Dynasty, etc.

Almohad Dynasty in Maghreb, unity largely maintained.

Ayyubids oust Fatimids in Egypt.

At Kilwa, King Ali al-Hasan mints earliest Kilwa coins.

Formation of feudal kingdoms in central and northern Ethiopia. Flowering of culture, including written literature in Ge'ez after 1200.

Decline of Christian Nubia under Ayyubid attacks from the north. However, fall not complete until fourtenth century or later in certain parts.

Mamluks oust Ayyubids and rule Egypt until 1517.

Swahili ports now deeply engaged in long-distance trade between inland gold and ivory producers (mainly via Sofala for gold) and Indian Ocean mariners.

The small state of Kangaba, led by Sundjata Keita, or Sundiata, defeated the nearby kingdom of Susu at the Battle of Kirina in 1235. The Susu had been led by king Sumanguru Kante. The clans of the heartland unified under the vigorous Sundjata, now king of the vast region that was to become the Mali Empire, beginning a period of expansion. The rulers of Mali nominally converted to Islam, though this did not preclude belief and practice of traditional Mande religions.

Zimbabwe (meaning "stone house" or building), some of which are massive, constructed in southeastern Africa by ancestors of the Shona peoples of modern Zimbabwe.

Mansa Uli continues to expand Kangaba into state of Mali, which begins to take over from successor states of Ghana as Mature Iron Age polity.

Ife-Ife, Yoruban culture of non-Bantu Kwa-speakers, flourished in western Africa, producing remarkable terra cotta and bronze portrait heads, continuing Nok creative traditions.

Death of Sundjata Keita, Mali’s "Lion Prince."

The Mali Empire, centered on the upper reaches of the Sénégal and Niger rivers, was the second and most extensive of the three great West African empires. The Mali Empire served as a model of statecraft for later kingdoms long after its decline in the 15th and 16th centuries. Under Sundjata and his immediate successors, Mali expanded rapidly west to the Atlantic Ocean, south deep into the forest, east beyond the Niger River, and north to the salt and copper mines of the Sahara. The city of Niani may have been the capital. At its height, Mali was a confederation of 3 independent, freely allied states (Mali, Mema, and Wagadou) and 12 garrisoned provinces. The king reserved the right to dispense justice and to monopolize trade, particularly in gold. Sundjiata Keita is the cultural hero and ancestor of the Mande (or Mandinka) peoples, founder of the great Mali Empire, and inspiration of the great oral epic tradition of the griots or professional bards (like Djeliba in the Hum 211 film Keita: The Heritage of the Griot), keepers of tradition and history, trusted and powerful advisors of kings and clans.

End of Almohad Dynasty in Maghreb. Christian conquest begins. (Granada holds out until 1492).

Rise of the Mali Empire of the Mande (or Mandinka) peoples in West Africa. The Mali Empire was strategically located near gold mines and the agriculturally rich interior floodplain of the Niger River. This region had been under the domination of the Ghana Empire until the middle of the 11th century. As Ghana declined, several short-lived kingdoms vied for influence over the western Sudan region.

Origins of new cultures in inland East Africa e.g. Chwezi Dynasty in southern Uganda, and others further south, arising on early small kingship or chiefdoms.

Mansa Musa becomes king of Mali, which continues to expand in West and Central Sudan and develops new techniques of literacy, trade and cerdit adopted by Islam.

Mali Emperor Mansa Musa's sensational pilgrimage to Mecca, spreads Mali’s fame across Sudan to Egypt, the Islamic and European worlds. ["Mansa" means "emperor."] He brought with him hundreds of camels laden with gold. Under Mansa Musa, diplomatic relations with Tunis and Egypt were opened, and Muslim scholars and artisans brought into to the empire; and Mali appeared on the maps of Europe. Islam penetrated Mali’s elaborate court life and thrived in commercial sahel centers such as Jenne and Tombouctou or Timbuktu, on the great bend of the Niger River. Mali's legacy is the enduring cultural affiliation shared by the Mande peoples (especially Malinke, Bambara, and Soninke speakers) who today occupy large parts of West Africa.

Mansa Musa takes Gao, he dies in 1337.

In central grasslands, Great Zimbabwe culture develops further. Origins of great stone buildings, which probably raised to near present extand before 1400.

Great Zimbabwe, impressive stone construction of the Karanga - ancestors of the Shona peoples of southeastern Africa - is the center of Bantu peoples that controlled a large part of interior southeast Africa. The Karanga peoples formed the Mwene Mutapa Empire, which derived its wealth from large-scale gold mining. At its height in the 15th century, its sphere of influence stretched from the Zambezi River, to the Kalahari, to the Indian Ocean and the Limpopo River.

Spread of Ntemi forms of kingship through Tanzania.

Ibn Battuta visits Kilwa and finds it a strong and wealthy trading city.

Songhai Sonni Dynasty begins at Gao.

Sonni Suleiman-Mar makes Gao independent of Mali.

Abraham Creques, jewish cartographer of Majorca, completes earliest known detailed map of Western Africa. European voyages foreshadowed.

Court intrigue and succession disputes sapped the strength of the extended Mali Empire, and northern towns and provinces revolted, making way for the Empire of Songhai to emerge from the vassal state of Gao. One of the first peoples to become independent, the Songhai, began to spread along the Niger River. Much of Mali fell to the Songhai Empire in the western Sudan during the 15th century.

Gao troops raid Niani, capital of Mali. Rise of Songhai power in Central Sudan at expense of Mali.

• Wolof empire well established in Senegal
• Critallisation of Mossi and other grassland kingdoms
• Emergence of Akan state of Bono-Manso and of Begho (northern fringes of Asante/Ashanti forest in modern Ghana) as important new centre of gold trade
• Djenne and Timbuktu in Middle Niger develop

Complex, advanced lake states, located between Lakes Victoria and Edward, were established, including kingdoms ruled by the Bachwezi, Luo, Bunyoro, Ankole, Buganda, and Karagwe--but little is known of their early history. Engaruka, a town of 6,000 stone houses in Tanzania, played a key role in the emergence of Central African empires. Bunyoro was the most powerful state until the second half of the 18th century, with an elaborate centralized bureaucracy: most district and subdistrict chiefs were appointed by the kabaka ("king"). Farther to the south, in Rwanda, a cattle-raising pastoral aristocracy founded by the Bachwezi (called Bututsi, or Bahima, in this area) ruled over settled Bantu peoples from the 16th century onward.

Swahili cities flourish on east African coast of Indian Ocean; trading esp. in ivory, gold, iron, slaves. Indonesian immigrants reached Madagascar during the 1st millennium CE bringing new foodstuffs, notably bananas, which soon spread throughout the continent, and Arab settlers colonized the coast and established trading towns. By the 13th century a number of significant Zenj city-states had been established, including Mogadishu, Malindi, Lamu, Mombasa, Kilwa, Pate, and Sofala. An urban Swahili culture developed through mutual assimilation of Bantu and Arabic speakers. The ruling classes were of mixed Arab-African ancestry; the populace was Bantu, many of them slaves. These mercantile city-states were oriented toward the sea, and their political impact on inland peoples was virtually nonexistent until the 19th century.

Malindi sends a giraffe to the Emperor of China. This is followed by Chinese voyages to western Indian Ocean, including northern parts of East Coast of Africa.

Dynastic disputes at Kilwa are overcome.

New Rozwi (Shona) Dynasty in central grasslands (Zimbabwe culture), known as Mwanamutapa, begins with Mutota. Mutota shifts capital from Great Zimbabwe to area of Mount Daewin in north-east of modern Zimbabwe, embarks on large programme of conquest.

Gil Eannes sails south of Cape Bojador.

Portugal takes the Azores and increases expeditions along northwest African coast, eventually reaching the Gold Coast (modern Ghana). The Portuguese explorations were motivated by a desire for knowledge, a wish to bring Christianity to what they perceived as pagan peoples, the search for potential allies against Muslim threats, and the hope of finding new and lucrative trade routes and sources of wealth. Wherever the Portuguese—and the English, French, and Dutch who followed them—went, they eventually disrupted ongoing patterns of trade and political life and changed economic and religious systems.

Benin becomes powerful under Oba Ewuare.

Beginning of European slave trade in Africa with first shipment of African slaves sent directly from Africa to Portugal. With the complicity and blessings of the Catholic church. The Portuguese would come to dominate the gold, spice and slave trade for almost a century before other European nations became greatly involved.

It is true that African societies did have various forms of slavery and dependent labor before their interaction with Arabs and Europeans that invaded Africa, especially in nonegalitarian centralized African states, but scholars argue that indigenous slavery was relatively a marginal aspect of traditional African societies. Many forms of servitude and slavery were relatively benign, an extension of lineage and kinship systems. Slaves and servants were often well-treated and could rise to respected positions in households and communities. African social hierarchies and conditions of servitude were mitigated by complex, extended kinship relationships, based on community, group, clan, and family. Ethnic rivalries and hostilities did exist, as did ethnocentrism (a belief that one's group and its lifeways are superior to those of other groups), but the concept of race was a foreign import. Muslim conquests of North Africa and penetration in the south made slavery a more widely diffused phenomenon, and the slave trade in Africans—especially women and children--developed on a new scale. The adoption of Islamic concepts of slavery made it a legitimate fate for non-believers but an illegal treatment for Muslims. In the forest states of West Africa, such as Benin and Kongo, slavery was an important institution before the European arrival, African rulers seeking to enslave other African groups, rather than their own people, to enhance their wealth, prestige, and control of labor. However, the Atlantic Slave Trade opened up greatly expanded opportunities for large-scale economic trade in human beings--chattel slavery--on an unprecedented scale. Expanding, centralized African states on/near the coast became major suppliers of slaves to the Europeans, who mobilized commerce in slaves relatively quickly by tapping existing routes and supplies (adapted from Stearns, Adas, and Schwartz).

First Slaves brought to Portugal from northern Mauretania.

Portuguese make contract with Sub-Saharan Africa.

Potuguese on Senegal seaboard.

Matope, Mutota's successor in Mwanamutapa (Zimbabwe), completes conquests: establishes Shona soverainty over most of present-day Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

Songhai (or Songhay) Empire, centered at Gao, dominates the central Sudan after Sunni Ali Ber’s army defeated the largely Tuareg contingent at Tombouctou (or Timbuktu, site of the famous University of Sankore, center of Islamic learning & book trade) and captured the city. An uncompromising warrior-king, Ali Ber extended the Songhai empire by controlling the Niger River with a navy of war vessels. He also refused to accept Islam, and instead advanced African traditions. Civilizations in Africa: Songhay (Richard Hooker, World Civilizations, WSU)

Portuguese arrive in the Gold Coast.

Ruy de Siqueira reaches Bight of Benin.

First Europeans (Portuguese) visit Benin (Edo*-speaking ruling culture) and arrive at east coast of Africa, increasing trade in gold, ivory, and slaves (*and thanks to Paula Girshick Ben-Amos for the correction). According to Microsoft Encarta Africana 1998, "[b]etween the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Edo ruled the powerful kingdom of Benin. Today approximately 1 million people consider themselves Edo.")

El Mina is founded on the West African "Gold Coast," the most important of the chain of trading settlements hat the Portuguese established here. African gold, ivory, foodstuffs, and slaves were exchanged for ironware, firearms, textiles, and foodstuffs.

Diogo Cao reaches estuary of Congo.

Bartolomeo Diaz rounds Cape of Goog Hope.

The death of Sunni Ali Ber created a power vacuum in the Songhai Empire, and his son was soon deposed by Mamadou Toure who ascended the throne in 1492 under the name Askia (meaning "general") Muhammad, another subject of great oral epics. During his reign which ended in 1529, Askia Muhammad made Songhai the largest empire in the history of west Africa. He restored the previously discouraged tradition of Islamic learning to the University of Sankore, and Timbuktu (or Tombouctou, population 50,000) known as a major center of Islamic learning and book trade. Askia Muhammad’s consolidation of Muslim power worked against encroaching Christian forces. The empire went into decline, however, after 1528, when the now-blind Askia Muhammad was deposed by his son.

Portuguese begin building Elmina Castle on the Gold Coast.

Bartholomew Diaz goes round the Cape of Good Hope.

First Portuguese missionaries go to Congo.

Changamire breaks away from Mwanamutapa Dynasty (in Zimbabwe); sets up new state based on Bulawayo area (e.g. Khami and other sites).

Songhay expansion. Askia Dynasty founded by al-Hajji Muhammad. Songhay dominates Central Sudan.

Vasco de Gama reaches Swahili city-ports; sails to India with Arab pilot.

Kingdom of Kongo flourished on the Congo River (modern Zaire, now Republic of Congo), a confederation of provinces under the Manikongo (the king; "mani" means blacksmith, denoting the early importance and spiritual power of iron working).

Benin at height of its power. City-states, like Ife-Ife and Oyo, are ruled by obas (kings) with court societies supporting celebrated arts. Benin city (Edo) was founded around the 12th century and had ongoing political and cultural ties with Ife and other urban centers in the area; a second Benin dynasty began in the 16th century. "Dahomey, with its capital at Abomey, was the most important kingdom in Benin's history. A major exporter of slaves to the New World during the triangular trade between Africa, Europe, and the New World during the 16-18th centuries, it was a military empire feared by all its neighbors". The power of the Benin empire ended in the late 19th century when British troops destroyed Benin's capital city.) The Edo of Benin and the Akan of Ghana built underground tunnels that connected villages.

Though it is hard to give an exact date or event (except perhaps the increasing interest of European powers in the continents natural and human resources), the 15th Century marks the beginning of the decline of African empires.

Fung Sultanate founded at Sennar on Blue Nile as successor state (Muslim) to southernmost Christian Nubian kingdom of Alwa.

Sugar plantations established on island of Sao Tome two hundred miles from coast of West Africa.

East African Literature Emerges: An early known example of East African literature, dated 1520 and written in Arabic, is an anonymous history of the city-state of Kilwa Kisiwani. Soon after, histories of East African city-states written in Swahili appeared, as well as "message" poems, usually written from a moral/religious viewpoint. In 1728, the earliest known work of (imaginative) literature is written in original Swahili: the epic poem Utendi wa Tambuka (Story of Tambuka). Swahili epic verse writers borrowed from the romantic traditions surrounding the Prophet Muhammad, then freely elaborated to meet tastes of their listeners and readers.

Oba Esigie begins long and successful reign in Benin. Adds Idah to Benin empire. Portuguese accepted as residents in Benin city.

Portuguese burn Kilwa, continue ravafes up the coast; in following years attempt to monopolise Indian Ocean carrying trade, partly succeed. Beginning of decline of Swahili city-ports.

From base in Mozambique, Portuguese begin slow penetration up Zambezi valley.

Kanem-Bornu expansion: Mai Idris Katakarmabe reoccupies Njimi, old Kanem capital.

First slaves shipped to Spanish colonies in South America via Spain.

Benin ceases to export male slaves, fearing loss of manpower.

Ottomans complete conquest of Egypt.

Chronicle of Kilwa.

Mai Muhammad continues Kanem-Bornu war against Bulala east of Lake Chad.

Ottomans penetrate Algeria, occupy Yemen, dominate Red Sea trade, threaten Ethiopians, also Portuguese..

First direct shipment of slaves from Africa to the Americas.

Ottomans secure Tunesia.

Portuguese land at Massawa and aid Ethiopia against invasion by Ahmed, Sultan of Adel, who has Ottoman help.

Portuguese trade in Africa increasingly attracts rival European traders who, in the 16th century, created competing stations or attempted to capture the existing trade.
In western Africa the new trade had profound effects. Earlier trade routes were now reoriented from the Sahara to the seacoast, and as the states of the savanna declined in economic importance, states along the coast increased their wealth and power. Struggles developed among coastal peoples for control over trade routes and access to new European firearms.

English traders reach Benin.

Ethiopian King Claudius killed while warring with Adel.

Britain begins its slave trade in Africa. Slave Trade increases significantly with development of plantation colonies of the Americas, especially in Brazil. Other countries involved in the European slave trade included Spain (from 1479); North America (from 1619); Holland (from 1625); France (from 1642); Sweden (from 1647); and Denmark (from 1697).

Sarsa Dengel king of Ethiopia.

Kanem-Bornu at height of power under Mai Idris Alooma, 'the learned, just, courageous and pius Commander of the Faithful'.

Portuguese establish colony in Angola.

Nomadic Kunta Arabs began to preach and spread mystic Sufi Islam throughout the western Sudan. The Fulani, a nomadic pastoral people, moving slowly eastward from Senegal, also gain converts for Islam through mid-16th century. During this period, Islam became a personal religion among many Africans rather than merely a religion of state. In fact, Islam appears to have declined among the ruling classes, and non-Muslim dynasties ruled in old Muslim strongholds until the 18th century, when Islamic reform and revival movements began.

Some Swahili cities revolt against Portuguese with hope of Ottoman aid; disappointed.

Maroccans invade Songhay. Fall of Songhai Empire: Attracted by its wealth, the armies of al-Mansur of Morocco overran the Songhai capital of Gao. Following the collapse of Songhai, a number of small kingdoms strove to dominate the western Sudan, instigating continual strife and economic decline. During the breakup of the Songhai empire, an intense period of slave activity occurred in west Africa at the hands of Arab Islamic missionaries and European traders.

Period of Portuguese raiding invasions of Angolan kingdoms. Large Portuguese slave trade to Brazil.

Portuguese begin building Fort Jesus at Mombasa as their main base.

To the east of Songhai, between the Niger River and Lake Chad, the Hausa city-states and the Kanem-Bornu Empire had been established since the 10th century. After the fall of Songhai, the trans-Saharan trade moved eastward, where centers of flourishing commerce and urban life developed. Islam appears to have been introduced into the Hausa states from 11th to 14th centuries.

The best known Bornu ruler, Mai Idris Alooma, introduced firearms purchased from the Ottoman Turks. At its pinnacle, Kanem-Bornu controlled the eastern Saharan routes to Egypt, but by the middle of the 17th century, began a slow decline.

Sudanese Islamic scholars like Abd al-Rahman al-Sadi, author of Tarikh as-Sudan (History of the Sudan), set down the oral traditions of the western Sudanic empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai in the style of Arabic histories.